Phil 105, Section 2: Science & Human Values
Spring 2017
|
Course meets:
Tuesday & Thursday, 9-10:15am Location: Mendocino Hall 3009 Office hours: Tuesday & Thursday 10:30-12:00pm and by appointment Office location: Mendocino Hall 3018 |
Instructor: Dr. Saray Ayala-López
Email: ayala@csus.edu Preferred gender pronouns: they, them, theirs |
Schedule (with deadlines)AssignmentsReading list (besides textbook)Complete syllabus (pdf) |
Catalog Description:
Examination of the values implicit in a scientific culture and the problems that arise as a commitment to the development of scientific knowledge and technology. These problems include: distinguishing good scientific practice from bad; the intrinsic value of scientific knowledge independent of its benefits in application; the proper and improper applications of scientific knowledge.
Course Description:
This course examines the relationship between science and values. In order to properly assess the role of values in science, we start by exploring what science is and how it works. By examining notions like observation, correlation, causation, theory, explanation, measurement, categorization, instrumentalism and reductionism, we will get a better sense of some of the complexities in the scientific process that keep philosophers of science busy. Equipped with these notions, we will be able to spot different stages in scientific research where values might play a role. We will apply these considerations to different branches of science (e.g. Neuroscience, Evolutionary Biology, Psychology, Sociology) and to debates on technology, environment, risk, sports and medicine. Both the conceptual analyses and the practical applications will reveal that values often operate in covert ways in scientific research, and that there are different kinds of values that are relevant (e.g. epistemic, moral). We will pay special attention to cases in which morally problematic social values (e.g. sexist, racist, heteronormative, ableist) shape the direction of scientific investigation and its results. Units: 3.0.
GE Area and Prerequisites:
This course satisfies GE area D (see the outcomes below). It is a writing intensive class, which requires students to write a minimum of 5,000 words of structured prose.
You must have GWAR certification before Fall 2009; or WPJ score of 80 or above; or 3-unit placement in ENGL 109M/W; or 4-unit placement in ENGL 109M/W + co-enrollment in ENGL 109X; or WPJ score 70/71 + co-enrollment in ENGL 109X.
Course objectives
We will cover the following questions:
1. Does science consist of passive observation and statement of facts?
2. Are scientific theories true descriptions of different parts of the world, or are they rather useful frameworks to make correct predictions and navigate the world, independently of their truth value?
3. Does correlation between events indicate that there is a causal relation?
4. How do scientists categorize and measure aspects of the world?
5. Should science aim for giving a description of reality that is value-free, or do moral and political considerations play an important role that should be openly acknowledged?
6. At what stage(s) in the scientific process do values enter into the picture?
7. Which kinds of values should/should not be part of scientific research?
8. How has sexist, racist, heteronormative and ableist ideology shaped the direction of scientific research?
9. Can we (scientifically) assess the risks we are exposed to (e.g. environmental and health risks) in a value-free way?
10. Can technology be racist, sexist, heteronormative and ableist?
11. Can we generalize science done in Western countries to other parts of the world?
12. What values guide medical science in determining what sex is, and how a sexed human body should be?
13. What is to be healthy and function normally? How do we define “normal”?
14. Is the scientific community diverse and inclusive? Why is that important?
15. Is the search for knowledge always justified? How do we determine its limits?
16. Is science’s goal the control of nature?
17. Why is there so much skepticism and paralysis in relation to anthropogenic climate change?
18. How are politics and power related to science?
Course outcomes:
As per the GE area D and writing intensive requirements, students will be able to:
1. Describe and evaluate ethical and social values in their historical and cultural contexts.
2. Explain and apply the principles and methods of academic disciplines to the study of social and individual behavior.
3. Demonstrate an understanding of the role of human diversity in human society, for example, race, ethnicity, class, age, ability/disability, sexual identity, gender and gender expression.
4. Explain and critically examine social dynamics and issues in their historical and cultural contexts.
5. Structure logical arguments, write well-formed sentences, and write prose that clearly demonstrates a sustained logical argument.
Here is a link to the GE area D learning outcomes: http://www.csus.edu/phil/Guidance/Philosophy%20GE.pdf
Course format
All classes contain at least 2 of these elements:*
1. Lecture: the instructor introduces the reading for the day.
2. Class discussion: the whole class discusses questions raised during the lecture and/or questions posed by the instructor.
3. Group discussion: students form discussion groups.
4. In-class writing: students complete short writing assignments addressing a question posed by the instructor.
*Exceptions:
- April 6: special event
- April 13: online class
Check SacCT regularly for updates.
Required Materials:
1. Barker, G. & Kitcher, P. 2014. Philosophy of Science: A New Introduction. Oxford University Press (B&K)
2. Additional required readings and links to online videos (noted on the schedule) will be made available on the course website.
Assessment: Your total number of points is calculated by adding the weighted points earned on the following assessment items:
Examination of the values implicit in a scientific culture and the problems that arise as a commitment to the development of scientific knowledge and technology. These problems include: distinguishing good scientific practice from bad; the intrinsic value of scientific knowledge independent of its benefits in application; the proper and improper applications of scientific knowledge.
Course Description:
This course examines the relationship between science and values. In order to properly assess the role of values in science, we start by exploring what science is and how it works. By examining notions like observation, correlation, causation, theory, explanation, measurement, categorization, instrumentalism and reductionism, we will get a better sense of some of the complexities in the scientific process that keep philosophers of science busy. Equipped with these notions, we will be able to spot different stages in scientific research where values might play a role. We will apply these considerations to different branches of science (e.g. Neuroscience, Evolutionary Biology, Psychology, Sociology) and to debates on technology, environment, risk, sports and medicine. Both the conceptual analyses and the practical applications will reveal that values often operate in covert ways in scientific research, and that there are different kinds of values that are relevant (e.g. epistemic, moral). We will pay special attention to cases in which morally problematic social values (e.g. sexist, racist, heteronormative, ableist) shape the direction of scientific investigation and its results. Units: 3.0.
GE Area and Prerequisites:
This course satisfies GE area D (see the outcomes below). It is a writing intensive class, which requires students to write a minimum of 5,000 words of structured prose.
You must have GWAR certification before Fall 2009; or WPJ score of 80 or above; or 3-unit placement in ENGL 109M/W; or 4-unit placement in ENGL 109M/W + co-enrollment in ENGL 109X; or WPJ score 70/71 + co-enrollment in ENGL 109X.
Course objectives
We will cover the following questions:
1. Does science consist of passive observation and statement of facts?
2. Are scientific theories true descriptions of different parts of the world, or are they rather useful frameworks to make correct predictions and navigate the world, independently of their truth value?
3. Does correlation between events indicate that there is a causal relation?
4. How do scientists categorize and measure aspects of the world?
5. Should science aim for giving a description of reality that is value-free, or do moral and political considerations play an important role that should be openly acknowledged?
6. At what stage(s) in the scientific process do values enter into the picture?
7. Which kinds of values should/should not be part of scientific research?
8. How has sexist, racist, heteronormative and ableist ideology shaped the direction of scientific research?
9. Can we (scientifically) assess the risks we are exposed to (e.g. environmental and health risks) in a value-free way?
10. Can technology be racist, sexist, heteronormative and ableist?
11. Can we generalize science done in Western countries to other parts of the world?
12. What values guide medical science in determining what sex is, and how a sexed human body should be?
13. What is to be healthy and function normally? How do we define “normal”?
14. Is the scientific community diverse and inclusive? Why is that important?
15. Is the search for knowledge always justified? How do we determine its limits?
16. Is science’s goal the control of nature?
17. Why is there so much skepticism and paralysis in relation to anthropogenic climate change?
18. How are politics and power related to science?
Course outcomes:
As per the GE area D and writing intensive requirements, students will be able to:
1. Describe and evaluate ethical and social values in their historical and cultural contexts.
2. Explain and apply the principles and methods of academic disciplines to the study of social and individual behavior.
3. Demonstrate an understanding of the role of human diversity in human society, for example, race, ethnicity, class, age, ability/disability, sexual identity, gender and gender expression.
4. Explain and critically examine social dynamics and issues in their historical and cultural contexts.
5. Structure logical arguments, write well-formed sentences, and write prose that clearly demonstrates a sustained logical argument.
Here is a link to the GE area D learning outcomes: http://www.csus.edu/phil/Guidance/Philosophy%20GE.pdf
Course format
All classes contain at least 2 of these elements:*
1. Lecture: the instructor introduces the reading for the day.
2. Class discussion: the whole class discusses questions raised during the lecture and/or questions posed by the instructor.
3. Group discussion: students form discussion groups.
4. In-class writing: students complete short writing assignments addressing a question posed by the instructor.
*Exceptions:
- April 6: special event
- April 13: online class
Check SacCT regularly for updates.
Required Materials:
1. Barker, G. & Kitcher, P. 2014. Philosophy of Science: A New Introduction. Oxford University Press (B&K)
2. Additional required readings and links to online videos (noted on the schedule) will be made available on the course website.
Assessment: Your total number of points is calculated by adding the weighted points earned on the following assessment items:
Description of assessment items:
In-class writing exercises: These are short (100-200 words) written exercises we’ll do in class. You will be asked to answer one or two questions or write a response to the assigned reading for the day. In order to do well on these exercises, you need to do the readings and make sure you understand them. There will be no make-up options for these exercises (see the late submissions policy below). If you miss a class or arrive to class by the time the exercise is over, you do not earn any points.
There are 15 in-class exercises, worth 1.5 point each. I’ll drop the two lowest-scoring exercises. You can earn a maximum of 19.5 points total on these exercises. See the “Rubrics” folder for details on how these exercises are graded).
Writing assignments: These are written exercises (200-400 words) that you will do at home and submit through SacCT on their due date. Starting week 3, there are written assignments due every week, sometimes twice a week. In order to do well on these exercises, you need to understand the readings and the material discussed in class during the preceding sessions. Pay attention to the schedule and make sure you do not miss the deadlines. There will be no make-ups (see the late submission policy below).
There are 10 written assignments, worth 3 points max. each (see the “Rubrics” folder for details on how these exercises are graded).
Handout: You are expected to select a reading and develop a handout for it. The handout must summarize the argument of the reading. Ideally, it will also include questions challenging the argument or expanding it. Format: it can be regular structured prose (up to one two-sided page), a mental map, a comic strip, a song (up to 2 mins), an animation (up to 2mins), a collage … be creative! (samples of handouts will be made available).
Video Report: Check SacCT for details.
Short paper:
In this assignment you have to argue for or against the following claim: “Values should not be part of scientific research”. Provide at least one example to illustrate your argument. You can focus on a particular branch of science or science more generally, and on a particular value (epistemic, social or moral) or values more generally. The paper will be graded on five parameters:
1. Does it contain a clear statement?
2. Does it have an argument in support of the statement?
3. Does it have at least an example illustrating the argument?
4. Does it discuss/engage with material covered in class?
5. Are references and citations correct?
Group presentation: The class will be divided in groups of three, and each group will prepare a presentation. Groups will present at the end of the semester. More details about group presentations will be provided in class and made available through the course site.
Participation: You do not learn and come to understand complex arguments simply by passively soaking up what happens around you in the classroom. In order to learn, you need to take an active role in processing the course material.
If you think you can do well in this course by working alone at home, without participating in class, please consider the following: Respectful and constructive discussion is a critical part to learning and becoming a good thinker. The pathway to good ideas and well-formed arguments is usually not a lonely one, but one filled with contributions and insights from others, sometimes in the form of challenges and questions, sometimes in the form of suggestions or comments. It is important to keep in mind that in this course, and in many others, you can learn not only from the texts and from me, but also from your classmates. Class discussions are a good opportunity to learn from classmates and to practice your own argumentative skills. It is also a way to initiate collaborative projects.
Participation will be evaluated on two parameters: relevance and quality.
There is a maximum of 0.5 of a point per class, and a total of 10 points you can earn for participation. There are two participation formats: speaking in class, and writing your questions/comments and handing them to me at the end of class. Written participation contributions that were not handed to me at the end of each class will not be considered. If you feel uncomfortable speaking in class, come talk to me about it. I might help you with that. Check the folder “how to get a good participation grade” for details.
Other Important Information
I am here to help: Remember that I am here to help you learn as best as I can. Please utilize my office hours for additional feedback and guidance on course-related issues.
Attendance: Attending class is expected. There will be in-class assignments every week, and you will not be excused due to absence. Attendance is also required for participation, which is an important part of your grade (see below). Any student who misses 2 or more classes in the first 2 weeks may be administratively dropped to make room for students on the waitlist.
Classroom behavior: The classroom should be a safe space to discuss any topic, no matter how controversial. We all have to build and maintain that safety by discussing respectfully, avoiding personal attacks, offensive epithets, contemptuous gestures and exclusive language. Any student who feels uncomfortable in class is encouraged to get in contact with me.
Use of electronic devices in class: Electronic devices, such as laptops, tablets, phones, and Google Glasses, are not allowed in class. The exceptions to this rule will take place during specific sessions in which laptops and/or tablets will be part of the class dynamics (the instructor will announce these sessions in advance).
Writing: Writing is a critical part of this course, and of philosophy in general. Come talk to me if you want resources and/or need extra advice on writing.
Gender neutral writing: In philosophy, gender-neutral writing is the accepted practice recommended by the American Philosophical Association. See the American Philosophical Association guidelines www.apaonlinecsw.org/apa-guidelines-for-non-sexist-use-of-language.
Plagiarism: Plagiarizing someone else’s work is a serious academic offence, and it is bad for many reasons. Always use quotation marks and a footnote citation to indicate sentences or passages you borrow from another author. Assignments in which plagiarism is found will at the least be graded at 0 (not just an F). All incidents of plagiarism will be reported both to the Department Chair and to the Judicial Officer in the Office of Student Affairs for possible further administrative sanction. You are responsible for reading and understanding the details of the University's plagiarism policy. All papers will be put through plagiarism software. See the current student handbook for further information on student rights and responsibilities. Here is a link to the university's honesty policy: http://www.csus.edu/umanual/student/stu-0100.htm Come talk to me if you are not sure about what constitutes plagiarism.
Disability access statement: Please tell me early if you have a disability requiring accommodation (documentation to SSWD, Lassen Hall 1008, 916-278-6955) or if you need to miss something to participate in officially recognized student activities. More information available here: http://www.csus.edu/sswd/index.html
If you miss a class… Please do not email me with the question “Did I miss anything important?” It is your responsibility to ask your classmates about the class you missed and take any other steps necessary to keep up with the course content. You won’t be excused of any of the required exercises for the reason “I didn’t know”.
Also, read this poem: http://www.loc.gov/poetry/180/013.html
Email policy: Before emailing me with a question:
- check the syllabus in case your question is already answered there;
- ask other students, for they might help you resolve your doubts;
- consider whether it would be more appropriate to talk to me in person.
If after doing that, you still have a reason to email me, take into account that I don’t carry a smart phone with email access, and I don’t check my email unless I’m working on my computer, so do not expect quick responses. Allow at least two business days before receiving an answer. If you haven’t heard from me after that, please send me a follow-up email.
Some advice on how to correspond with your professors: http://www.csus.edu/phil/guidance/how-to-correspond.html
Late submissions and missed exercises:
Accommodations will only be made under exceptional circumstances, such as a documented medical or family emergency (you need to contact me as soon as you can after the emergency and before the due date; extensions will usually not be given on or after the due date). Late assignments turned in after the due time on their due dates (i.e. after 13:30 on the due day) will be docked 10% (e.g., A- 90% becomes B- 80%); later assignments will not be accepted (i.e., assignments submitted after midnight of the due date will not be marked and will receive a zero grade).
Please be aware that this course includes many in-class writing assignments; missing any of them due to absence will result (unless it is an exceptional circumstance as mentioned above) in losing the points allocated to that assignment.
Required Materials: There is no textbook required for this course. Required readings and media materials (noted on the schedule) will be made available on the course website.
Technology Requirements: Students must have a reliable way of accessing SacCT. All important course announcements, information, and resources will be communicated and available through SacCT (except the material in the required text). Technical problems must be directed to the ITC Help Line @ 278-7337.
Anonymous grading: In order to guarantee impartial grading, I intend to grade as much work as possible anonymously. I need you to help me with that. Instead of your name, indicate your ID# on the two in-class exercises and the three assignments (paper outline, draft paper, and final paper).
Office hours: I strongly recommend that you come to my office hours at least once during the semester.
Grading
Grading: Your final grade is determined by how many points you earn out of 100%, with these grade floors: 93%=A, 90%=A-, 87%=B+, 83%=B, 80%=B-, 77%=C+, 73%=C, 70%=C-, 67%=D+, 63%=D, 60%=D- (and F = all scores less than 60%). Definition of Grade Symbols: http://catalog.csus.edu/12-14/first%20100%20pages/academicpolicies.html
Anonymous grading: In order to guarantee impartial grading, I intend to grade as much work as possible anonymously. I need you to help me with that. Instead of your name, indicate your ID# on the two in-class exercises and the three assignments (paper outline, draft paper, and final paper).
In-class writing exercises: These are short (100-200 words) written exercises we’ll do in class. You will be asked to answer one or two questions or write a response to the assigned reading for the day. In order to do well on these exercises, you need to do the readings and make sure you understand them. There will be no make-up options for these exercises (see the late submissions policy below). If you miss a class or arrive to class by the time the exercise is over, you do not earn any points.
There are 15 in-class exercises, worth 1.5 point each. I’ll drop the two lowest-scoring exercises. You can earn a maximum of 19.5 points total on these exercises. See the “Rubrics” folder for details on how these exercises are graded).
Writing assignments: These are written exercises (200-400 words) that you will do at home and submit through SacCT on their due date. Starting week 3, there are written assignments due every week, sometimes twice a week. In order to do well on these exercises, you need to understand the readings and the material discussed in class during the preceding sessions. Pay attention to the schedule and make sure you do not miss the deadlines. There will be no make-ups (see the late submission policy below).
There are 10 written assignments, worth 3 points max. each (see the “Rubrics” folder for details on how these exercises are graded).
Handout: You are expected to select a reading and develop a handout for it. The handout must summarize the argument of the reading. Ideally, it will also include questions challenging the argument or expanding it. Format: it can be regular structured prose (up to one two-sided page), a mental map, a comic strip, a song (up to 2 mins), an animation (up to 2mins), a collage … be creative! (samples of handouts will be made available).
Video Report: Check SacCT for details.
Short paper:
In this assignment you have to argue for or against the following claim: “Values should not be part of scientific research”. Provide at least one example to illustrate your argument. You can focus on a particular branch of science or science more generally, and on a particular value (epistemic, social or moral) or values more generally. The paper will be graded on five parameters:
1. Does it contain a clear statement?
2. Does it have an argument in support of the statement?
3. Does it have at least an example illustrating the argument?
4. Does it discuss/engage with material covered in class?
5. Are references and citations correct?
Group presentation: The class will be divided in groups of three, and each group will prepare a presentation. Groups will present at the end of the semester. More details about group presentations will be provided in class and made available through the course site.
Participation: You do not learn and come to understand complex arguments simply by passively soaking up what happens around you in the classroom. In order to learn, you need to take an active role in processing the course material.
If you think you can do well in this course by working alone at home, without participating in class, please consider the following: Respectful and constructive discussion is a critical part to learning and becoming a good thinker. The pathway to good ideas and well-formed arguments is usually not a lonely one, but one filled with contributions and insights from others, sometimes in the form of challenges and questions, sometimes in the form of suggestions or comments. It is important to keep in mind that in this course, and in many others, you can learn not only from the texts and from me, but also from your classmates. Class discussions are a good opportunity to learn from classmates and to practice your own argumentative skills. It is also a way to initiate collaborative projects.
Participation will be evaluated on two parameters: relevance and quality.
There is a maximum of 0.5 of a point per class, and a total of 10 points you can earn for participation. There are two participation formats: speaking in class, and writing your questions/comments and handing them to me at the end of class. Written participation contributions that were not handed to me at the end of each class will not be considered. If you feel uncomfortable speaking in class, come talk to me about it. I might help you with that. Check the folder “how to get a good participation grade” for details.
Other Important Information
I am here to help: Remember that I am here to help you learn as best as I can. Please utilize my office hours for additional feedback and guidance on course-related issues.
Attendance: Attending class is expected. There will be in-class assignments every week, and you will not be excused due to absence. Attendance is also required for participation, which is an important part of your grade (see below). Any student who misses 2 or more classes in the first 2 weeks may be administratively dropped to make room for students on the waitlist.
Classroom behavior: The classroom should be a safe space to discuss any topic, no matter how controversial. We all have to build and maintain that safety by discussing respectfully, avoiding personal attacks, offensive epithets, contemptuous gestures and exclusive language. Any student who feels uncomfortable in class is encouraged to get in contact with me.
Use of electronic devices in class: Electronic devices, such as laptops, tablets, phones, and Google Glasses, are not allowed in class. The exceptions to this rule will take place during specific sessions in which laptops and/or tablets will be part of the class dynamics (the instructor will announce these sessions in advance).
Writing: Writing is a critical part of this course, and of philosophy in general. Come talk to me if you want resources and/or need extra advice on writing.
Gender neutral writing: In philosophy, gender-neutral writing is the accepted practice recommended by the American Philosophical Association. See the American Philosophical Association guidelines www.apaonlinecsw.org/apa-guidelines-for-non-sexist-use-of-language.
Plagiarism: Plagiarizing someone else’s work is a serious academic offence, and it is bad for many reasons. Always use quotation marks and a footnote citation to indicate sentences or passages you borrow from another author. Assignments in which plagiarism is found will at the least be graded at 0 (not just an F). All incidents of plagiarism will be reported both to the Department Chair and to the Judicial Officer in the Office of Student Affairs for possible further administrative sanction. You are responsible for reading and understanding the details of the University's plagiarism policy. All papers will be put through plagiarism software. See the current student handbook for further information on student rights and responsibilities. Here is a link to the university's honesty policy: http://www.csus.edu/umanual/student/stu-0100.htm Come talk to me if you are not sure about what constitutes plagiarism.
Disability access statement: Please tell me early if you have a disability requiring accommodation (documentation to SSWD, Lassen Hall 1008, 916-278-6955) or if you need to miss something to participate in officially recognized student activities. More information available here: http://www.csus.edu/sswd/index.html
If you miss a class… Please do not email me with the question “Did I miss anything important?” It is your responsibility to ask your classmates about the class you missed and take any other steps necessary to keep up with the course content. You won’t be excused of any of the required exercises for the reason “I didn’t know”.
Also, read this poem: http://www.loc.gov/poetry/180/013.html
Email policy: Before emailing me with a question:
- check the syllabus in case your question is already answered there;
- ask other students, for they might help you resolve your doubts;
- consider whether it would be more appropriate to talk to me in person.
If after doing that, you still have a reason to email me, take into account that I don’t carry a smart phone with email access, and I don’t check my email unless I’m working on my computer, so do not expect quick responses. Allow at least two business days before receiving an answer. If you haven’t heard from me after that, please send me a follow-up email.
Some advice on how to correspond with your professors: http://www.csus.edu/phil/guidance/how-to-correspond.html
Late submissions and missed exercises:
Accommodations will only be made under exceptional circumstances, such as a documented medical or family emergency (you need to contact me as soon as you can after the emergency and before the due date; extensions will usually not be given on or after the due date). Late assignments turned in after the due time on their due dates (i.e. after 13:30 on the due day) will be docked 10% (e.g., A- 90% becomes B- 80%); later assignments will not be accepted (i.e., assignments submitted after midnight of the due date will not be marked and will receive a zero grade).
Please be aware that this course includes many in-class writing assignments; missing any of them due to absence will result (unless it is an exceptional circumstance as mentioned above) in losing the points allocated to that assignment.
Required Materials: There is no textbook required for this course. Required readings and media materials (noted on the schedule) will be made available on the course website.
Technology Requirements: Students must have a reliable way of accessing SacCT. All important course announcements, information, and resources will be communicated and available through SacCT (except the material in the required text). Technical problems must be directed to the ITC Help Line @ 278-7337.
Anonymous grading: In order to guarantee impartial grading, I intend to grade as much work as possible anonymously. I need you to help me with that. Instead of your name, indicate your ID# on the two in-class exercises and the three assignments (paper outline, draft paper, and final paper).
Office hours: I strongly recommend that you come to my office hours at least once during the semester.
Grading
Grading: Your final grade is determined by how many points you earn out of 100%, with these grade floors: 93%=A, 90%=A-, 87%=B+, 83%=B, 80%=B-, 77%=C+, 73%=C, 70%=C-, 67%=D+, 63%=D, 60%=D- (and F = all scores less than 60%). Definition of Grade Symbols: http://catalog.csus.edu/12-14/first%20100%20pages/academicpolicies.html
Anonymous grading: In order to guarantee impartial grading, I intend to grade as much work as possible anonymously. I need you to help me with that. Instead of your name, indicate your ID# on the two in-class exercises and the three assignments (paper outline, draft paper, and final paper).